Often interconnected with a person’s mental health are factors that may heighten or lower risk at various stages of development and contribute to challenging or more prosocial behavior. These factors that heighten risk in one’s early years are often called trauma or Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACES). Additional factors that influence students’ social and emotional well-being and behavior are culture and the impact of multiple identities, also known as intersectionality. As we learned earlier, these factors are often called setting events, precipitating factors, or slow triggers that impact one’s behavior indirectly. This next section further illuminates these specific and impactful setting events and guides educators in supporting students to minimize impact.

Associated Mental Health Disorders

Mental illnesses can affect persons of any age, race, religion, or income. Many mental disorders begin in childhood or adolescence yet may go undiagnosed and untreated for years. It is important to note that mental illnesses do not result from personal weakness, lack of character, or poor upbringing. Moreover, mental illnesses are treatable (NIMH, n.d.). Sometimes mental illness causes learning difficulties, leading to identifying school-age children under the special education category of Emotional Behavioral Disability (EBD) (IDEA, n.d.). It is important to note that a single factor rarely leads to behavior that impacts learning. Instead, specific circumstances and conditions increase the chances of developing problematic behavior (Cook & Ruhaak, 2014). The six disorders most often present in students with EBD are highlighted in the remainder of this section.

Anxiety Disorders

We all experience anxiety occasionally, but for many people, including children, anxiety can be excessive, persistent, seemingly uncontrollable, and overwhelming. An irrational fear of everyday situations may be involved. This high level of anxiety is a definite warning sign that a person may have an anxiety disorder. The term “anxiety disorder” covers several different disabilities that share the core symptom of irrational fear. These include generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), social anxiety disorder (also called social phobia), and specific phobias. According to the Anxiety and Depression Association of America (2022), anxiety disorders are the most common psychiatric illnesses affecting children and adults. They are also highly treatable. Unfortunately, only 36.9% of those affected receive treatment (CPIR, 2022).

Bipolar Disorder

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Intersectionality

Another factor that impacts students’ social and emotional well-being and behavior is their multiple and intersecting identities. Culture is often a word we associate with identity. We often use it to describe beliefs, norms, and practices characteristic of a particular society, group, or place. However, it is essential to note that a given culture is not monolithic. This is because there is diversity of beliefs, norms, and practices within a culture. Although there are many different cultures within the United States, the education system’s definition of “appropriate behavior” typically reflects white, middle-class cultural norms and values. These norms are reflected in broader school district practices, policies, and classroom expectations around behavior, communication, classroom dynamics, and family engagement. This can result in a cultural gap. Cultural gaps can cause teachers to misinterpret students’ behavior, leading to bias and conflict (IRIS Center, 2024).

Effects of Systematic Inequities

These conflicts can have various effects, including students feeling misunderstood or marginalized, higher rates of discipline referrals, and students leaving school. Left unchecked, systemic inequities develop, leading to both an overrepresentation and underrepresentation of students from certain cultures in each disability category. This is evident if you dive deep into the EBD category. Schiltz and Young (2022) share that the EBD category disproportionately over-representing students who are Black or American Indian is a national problem that has been widely noted and debated for decades. In contrast, Latino students are at heightened risk for social and emotional problems (Castro-Olivo et al., 2011) yet are perhaps underrepresented in the EBD category due to screening assessments not being in their native language and may not capturing student needs (Lambert et al., 2018). This is problematic for several reasons. First, much of the research on behavior and the development of behavior rating scales often used for special education evaluations has been shaped by studies conducted in the United States. As a result, it represents one cultural lens of Western culture and may not represent global populations and the complexity of diverse students’ identities.

According to a report by the Federal Reserve Bank of Minnesota (Grunewald et al., 2021), teachers and school staff sometimes treat students of color differently than white students. Black and American Indian students comprise about one-third of Minnesota’s overall student population but receive two-thirds of all suspensions and expulsions. Thus, it is unsurprising that Black and American Indian students receiving special education services in Minnesota are significantly more likely to be labeled as having EBD than other students while being underrepresented in the category of specific learning disability (SLD). These two groups of students are nearly ten times more likely to be suspended or expelled than their white peers (Minnesota Department of Human Rights, 2018). The ramifications of suspensions and expulsions extend beyond a student’s immediate punishment. Disciplinary actions are associated with higher dropout rates and a higher likelihood of juvenile justice system involvement (Fabelo et al., 2011).

The term “school-to-prison pipeline” (“Pipeline”) connotes the intersection of the K–12 public education system and law enforcement and the trend of referring students directly to law enforcement for committing offenses at school or creating conditions that increase the probability of students becoming incarcerated later in life, such as suspending or expelling them. Schools even have police officers stationed on campus. Although some may believe that arresting or incarcerating students for violating school rules may “scare them straight,” involving youth in the justice system typically does not achieve the desired reformative effect. Instead, the negative consequences that often occur are severe. Arresting a student substantially reduces the odds that the student will graduate from high school, especially if that student appears in court. It also decreases the odds that a student will succeed academically or have future stable employment opportunities. Worse, it increases the likelihood of that student’s future involvement in the criminal justice system. Furthermore, these negative trends do not impact all racial groups equally. Abundant evidence demonstrates that students of color are disproportionately represented throughout every stage of the pipeline. For example, school administrators and teachers discipline minority students more often and more severely than white students for committing similar offenses (Nance, 2016).

Moreover, the subjective nature of three specific special education eligibility criteria contributes to the over and underrepresentation of groups in special education categories and feeding the school-to-prison pipeline. Namely, the criteria for eligibility for EBD, SLD, and Other Health Impairments (OHI), where students with ADHD are often served, are based on subjective interpretations. The subjective nature creates space for the observations and interpretations being shaped by implicit biases and is of great concern. The EBD label often leads to segregation in special EBD classrooms or even more restrictive settings, with lower chances of high school graduation and a greater possibility of entry into the juvenile justice system. Educators in such settings often focus on modifying behavior rather than addressing learning or dealing with undiagnosed, underlying disabilities or mental health needs. This focus emphasizes short-term goals of preparing students to enter society or act appropriately in the segregated school setting rather than longer-term goals of social, emotional, and academic learning, which is the focus of general education.

We also need to consider that not everyone with social, emotional, and behavioral needs experiences challenges in the same way. There are obvious ways this manifests for people, as illuminated in the previous section, but there are others. Crenshaw (1989) coined the term intersectionality to describe the experience of Black womanhood. Being Black and female are different aspects of identity. Neither can be considered in isolation. Said another way, every person’s identity intersects to make them who they are and how they experience the world. These other identities, in addition to their disability, impact how a person experiences their disability and how people perceive and treat them. Said another way, mental health does not exist separately from identity markers. Thus, the symptoms, presentation, attitudes, beliefs, and understandings of EBD, SLD, and ADHD are impacted by the identities that individuals adopt or are assigned and the unique life experiences that accompany them (TheMindClan.com, 2020).

To illustrate, queer students of color may have unique stressors (e.g., systemic marginalization and oppression) related to their racial and sexual identities that white heterosexual students may not experience. Students of color who are also LGBTQI+ often have significantly worse outcomes, such as depression, anxiety, and compromised educational functioning than students in only one minority identity group (Borgogna et al., 2019). It is important to understand that our identities are not the issue; the problem lies within power systems that cause discrimination and oppression. These power systems can impact mental health outcomes (TheMindClan.com, 2020) and school success. Once again, if left unchecked or not fully appreciated, it could lead to well-meaning educators misidentifying or over-identifying students with diverse multiple intersecting identities with EBD.

A Way Forward

To fully support all students with social, emotional, and behavioral needs safely and appropriately, caregivers, educators, and professionals must understand the intersection of neurodiversity and students’ multiple identities. Adopting a humanizing approach to learning – considering how human interaction, identities, emotion, cognition, and pedagogical design intertwine to shape learning – positions students at the center of their learning by valuing prior knowledge, resources, and diverse identities (Freire, 2000; Fataar, 2016). Doing so can help protect students from negative mental health consequences, get appropriate learning support, and strengthen their support systems.

For example, restorative practices address harm or conflict in a way that focuses on repairing relationships, understanding the root causes of the problem, and making things suitable for everyone involved. Restorative practices aim to create a sense of community and responsibility for the actions that have taken place rather than simply punishing the wrongdoer.

Restorative practices can be used in various settings, including schools, workplaces, and the criminal justice system. For example, in schools, restorative practices might involve bringing together the person who caused harm, the person who was harmed, and others who were affected by the incident to talk about what happened, how it impacted everyone involved, and what steps can be taken to make things right. This can help build a sense of accountability and empathy among all parties and lead to stronger relationships and a more positive school climate overall. Thus, it is likely that fewer students will need social, emotional, and behavioral support due to improvements in systems that address their intersecting identities.

Functional Behavioral Assessment

Regardless of the close attention educators pay to systems and processes along with each student’s assets and needs, there will be students with social, emotional, and behavioral difficulties. And to support students like this, those developing the child’s IEP must consider strategies to address that behavior, including positive behavioral interventions, strategies, and supports. This is accomplished by using ABA principles and considering a variety of the previously discussed special considerations to create a Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) and Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP). Much like how an IEP team uses reading data from various sources to design a reading goal and intervention, the FBA serves a similar purpose for students with behavior that impedes learning.

FBA Initial Worksheet Example

The FBA helps teachers understand the reason(s) (i.e., the function or functions) for a student’s behavior. In many cases, challenging behaviors are inappropriate for students to obtain something desired (e.g., attention or a tangible item) or avoid something not preferred (e.g., a task or activity). After identifying the specific variables associated with the behaviors of concerns and the functions, the IEP team can craft the BIP. The BIP contains the positive and proactive intervention(s) that will help the student learn new, more acceptable methods of getting what they want/need. It is essential that the BIP contains an appropriate replacement behavior that addresses the same function as the problem behavior and other supports to teach and reinforce the desired behavior. This also often involves adapting the environment to avoid triggers, if possible, or teaching the student alternative but specific ways of responding to the triggering circumstance in a culturally responsive manner (IRIS Center, 2024). Research into function-based intervention demonstrates effectiveness for students with severe disabilities, multiple disabilities, ADHD, and learning disabilities, and those with or at risk for EBD (IRIS Center, 2024).

Let’s bring in Gunter (they/them), a high school junior identifying as LGBTQ+, to see the FBA/BIP process in action. Gunter was identified with EBD as their primary disability and a speech-language disorder as their secondary disability. Their largest challenges are behavioral. They talk excessively in class and do not listen to the point of view of other students or the teacher. They have difficulty communicating with their peers and sometimes sit alone in the cafeteria or other common spaces. Gunter sometimes may refuse to participate in classroom activities. They receive most of their instruction in the general education classroom with a small amount of time in a resource room if they become disruptive. The speech pathologist works with them on using social language, taking others’ perspectives, and developing more complex language skills (e.g., making inferences). In the general education classroom, Gunter carries a behavior plan with an agreed-upon set of rules. Their teachers sign the checklist in the plan daily if Gunter has followed the rules and participated in class without disruption. They have difficulty comprehending grade-level text and composing/writing. Gunter’s teachers and caregivers are at a loss, so they meet to create an FBA/BIP.

The IEP team determines through the FBA process that the function of Gunter’s behavior is to avoid class work and get attention. The teacher negatively reinforces Gunter’s behavior by sending them out of the classroom. The behavior is observed to occur more often during literature class. Since Gunter engages in problem behavior to get out of doing an academic task, discipline that involves removing the student from the situation provides the result that the student anticipated (e.g., not having to complete the academic task). Although the intention is not to reinforce or strengthen the problem behavior, using a reactive and punitive discipline model can produce these unfortunate results. Instead, a function-based intervention (contained in the BIP) that Gunter’s IEP team might design could include teacher prompts to begin work, completing chunks of assignments, and then requesting teacher feedback. Further, the team should consider support for reading and writing skill deficits.

The school psychologist reports that when she interviewed Gunter, he identified stressors at school related to them identifying as LGBTQ+ that seems to be bordering on harassment. As a result, a referral was made to a school social worker to investigate the harassment, and the school-based mental health provider will do a mental health screening. Additionally, based on the screener’s results, the team may consider adding mental health support.

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This video briefly overviews the FBA/BIP process.

YouTube Video: “The Functioning Behavioral Assessment: The FBA” by Teachings in Education

Throughout this textbook, we will use the IRIS Center Module: Functional Behavioral Assessment: Identifying the Reasons for Problem Behavior and Developing a Behavior Plan (2024) to reinforce learning. This module explores the basic principles of behavior and the importance of discovering why students engage in problem behavior. The steps to conducting a functional behavioral assessment and developing a behavior plan are also described. Complete pages 1-3, practice what we are learning through the application activities, and keep track of any questions, ideas, etc.

In later chapters, we will look at problem behavior (Note: the preferred term in this text is target behavior), determine the function of behavior, and craft replacement behaviors that meet a similar need.

Summary

In conclusion, understanding the principles of behavior is essential in addressing challenging behaviors in individuals. As Wehman and Kregel (2020) noted, all behavior serves a communicative function, and challenging behavior serves a specific purpose in a person’s life. By assessing the function of the behavior and replacing it with a functional communication or social skill, we can develop effective intervention plans to address the underlying causes of challenging behavior.

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) provides a scientific framework for understanding behavior and developing effective strategies to modify it. By utilizing the principles of behavior, we can identify the function of challenging behavior and develop function-based intervention plans to promote positive behavioral change.

Overall, this chapter has highlighted the importance of understanding the principles of behavior and their application in addressing challenging behaviors in individuals. By utilizing this knowledge and adopting a function-based approach to intervention, we can promote positive behavioral outcomes and improve the quality of life for individuals with challenging behaviors.

Deeper Dive

ABA

If you are interested in learning more about the downsides of ABA, here is an article that critiques Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) and offers recommendations.

Also, the implications of ABA-type interventions on students who have experienced trauma are essential to consider. This article provides recommendations for making ABA a more trauma-informed/aware practice.

Identity/Intersectionality

Ending Student Criminalization and the School-to-Prison Pipeline (2022). Black students are pushed out of school, arrested, and funneled into the justice system at alarmingly disproportionate rates, despite research confirming that Black students do not misbehave at higher rates than their white peers. This piece looks at the causes and offers solutions.

Why Black girls are targeted for punishment at school — and how to change that (2018). Around the world, Black girls are being pushed out of schools because of policies that target them for punishment, says author and social justice scholar Monique W. Morris. The result: countless girls are forced into unsafe futures with restricted opportunities. How can we put an end to this crisis? In an impassioned talk, Morris uncovers the causes of “pushout” and shows how we can work to turn all schools into spaces where Black girls can heal and thrive.

What should teachers understand about effective classroom behavior management – Cultural Influences (2024). Classroom Behavior Management (Part 1) Multimodal IRIS Center Module, page. 3.

Cultural Influences on Behavior (2021). Lori Delale-O’Connor, Assistant Professor of Education at the University of Pittsburgh School of Education, discusses cultural influences on behavior and explains the importance of re-examining classroom practices and perceptions of acceptable student behavior. She also discusses how demographic differences can lead to cultural gaps that negatively impact students. She also offers examples of how teachers can implement culturally sustaining practices to create inclusive classrooms where all students feel supported.

Cultural Considerations for Developing a Behavior Management Plan (2021). Lori Delale O’Connor, Assistant Professor of Education at the University of Pittsburgh School of Education, discusses why it is important for teachers to consider students’ cultures when developing a behavior management plan. She also explains how a thoughtful approach to student culture can help teachers create culturally responsive statements of purpose, develop unbiased rules, and deliver fair consequences.

Circle of Courage (2013). This article highlights the value of creating an educational climate that fosters resilience, motivation, and capacity building among learners who have been marginalized. Drawing on First Nations’ teachings that encourage a holistic and affirming perspective of culturally diverse learners, the Circle of Courage model details how the four foundations of self-esteem (significance, competence, power, and virtue) can be applied in different contexts. Connecting with troubled youth positively to help them build emotional and social efficacy and strategies to improve teacher-student relationships are presented. The authors of this article have also published a book.

Mental Health

Free mental health facts sheets are free for non-commercial use. The fact sheets include information on the most common mental health disorders in youth, classroom strategies, and additional resources. Note: You will be asked to accept a usage agreement before you can download them in PDF form.

Wisconsin’s Comprehensive School Mental Health vision is outlined in the Wisconsin School Mental Health Framework: Building and Sustaining a Comprehensive System. The framework includes six components of a CSMHS and guides on implementing them from a trauma-sensitive lens. For additional resources, browse the WI DPI webpage devoted to mental health.

Trauma

Childhood Trauma and Its Effect on Health (2012). This National Center for Safe Schools Healthy Students Report defines trauma, discusses trauma from a developmental perspective, and shares information related to risk, resilience, and protective factors related to trauma.

Responding to Trauma and Tragedy (2022). Minnesota Department of Education resource page includes educator tip sheets and contacts that can support those in a mental health crisis.