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3.4 Overall Netting of Capital Gain (Loss)

Learning Objectives

  • Apply Section 1231 gain/loss netting rules.
  • Net capital gains/losses across all property transactions, considering holding periods.
  • Identify the main tax forms for reporting capital gains and losses.

Module Overview

Taxpayers may dispose of multiple assets during a single tax year. This module explains the special netting rules that apply to business property under Internal Revenue Code Section 1231, how Section 1231 results integrate into the broader capital gain and loss netting process, and the forms used to report the transactions. Emphasis is placed on the required sequence of steps, because the ordering of recapture, Section 1231 netting, and capital netting affects both timing and character of tax results.

Section 1231 Gain (Loss) Netting: Special Rules for Business Property

Initial Netting of Section 1231 Gains and Losses

The Section 1231 regime applies to depreciable property and real property used in a trade or business and held for more than one year, together with certain involuntary conversions. To determine the treatment of gains and losses from such dispositions, taxpayers first net all gains and losses from qualifying Section 1231 transactions for the tax year. If the net result is a loss, that net Section 1231 loss is treated as an ordinary loss, deductible against ordinary income. If the net result is a gain, the net Section 1231 gain is generally treated as a long-term capital gain. This favorable character for net gains is one of Section 1231’s principal policy objectives, since it allows businesses to obtain capital gain treatment for long-term gains while preserving ordinary‑loss treatment for losses.

The Section 1231 “Look-Back” Rule

Under IRC Section 1231(c), a current-year net Section 1231 gain must be recharacterized as ordinary income to the extent of unrecaptured net Section 1231 losses deducted in the five preceding tax years. The lookback rule prevents taxpayers from using ordinary loss treatment in earlier years and then obtaining capital gain treatment later, without regard to prior losses.

Integration into overall capital netting

After determining the character of any net Section 1231 gain, taxpayers include any net Section 1231 gain that is treated as long-term capital gain in the standard capital gain and loss netting hierarchy. Conceptually, the overall netting process proceeds as follows: first, compute the net short-term capital gain or loss by combining all short-term items; second, compute the net long-term capital gain or loss by combining all long-term items, including any net Section 1231 gain treated as long-term; third, offset the net short-term and net long-term amounts to determine the taxpayer’s overall capital gain or loss for the year. For individuals, net capital losses in excess of capital gains are subject to annual limitation of deduction, and any remaining net capital losses can be  carried forward to future years.

Tax Forms to Report the Final Gain or Loss

Taxpayers report dispositions and perform required netting on specific forms. Sales and dispositions of business property subject to Section 1231 are reported on Form 4797, Sales of Business Property. Net Section 1231 gains or losses calculated on Form 4797 are transferred to Schedule D or, when ordinary treatment applies, reported as ordinary income on the Form 1040 sequence. Sales and other dispositions of capital assets are listed on Form 8949, Sales and Other Dispositions of Capital Assets, and summarized on Schedule D, Capital Gains and Losses. Schedule D consolidates the netting results and produces the final capital gain or loss amount carried to Form 1040.

Form 4797, Sales of Business Property: This form is used to report the sale or exchange of Section 1231 property, as well as other business property. The initial netting of Section 1231 gains and losses is performed on this form. The net Section 1231 gain (or loss) is then transferred to Schedule D or reported as ordinary income (in the case of a net loss). See video for Form 4797 walkthrough.

Form 8949, Sales and Other Dispositions of Capital Assets: This form is used to list the details of each sale or other disposition of both short-term and long-term capital assets. This includes stocks, bonds, investment real estate, and other capital assets. Information from this form is then summarized on Schedule D. See video for Form 8949 walkthrough.

Schedule D (Form 1040), Capital Gains and Losses: This is the primary form used to summarize your overall capital gains and losses. It takes the information from Form 8949 (and the net Section 1231 gain from Form 4797) to perform the final netting calculations. Schedule D ultimately determines your net capital gain or loss, which is then reported on Form 1040, U.S. Individual Income Tax Return. See video for Schedule D walkthrough.

Taxation of Net Capital Gains

IRS source: Capital gain tax rate

 Individuals can deduct up to $3,000 of this net capital loss against their ordinary income each year (IRC Section 1211(b)). Any unused capital loss can be carried forward indefinitely to future tax years to offset future capital gains and, if necessary, up to $3,000 of ordinary income annually. Net Short-Term Capital Gain is taxed as ordinary income.

To understand how net long-term capital gain is calculated, it’s important to recognize that the category of “long-term capital gain” encompasses various types of gains, some of which may be subject to different maximum tax rates. A long-term capital gain arises from the sale or exchange of a capital asset held for more than one year (§ 1222(3)).

Here’s a breakdown of the common types of long-term capital gains and how they contribute to the net long-term capital gain calculation:
  • General Long-Term Capital Gains: This is the most common type, resulting from the sale of assets like stocks, bonds, investment real estate (other than depreciable real property), mutual funds, and other typical capital assets held for longer than a year. These gains are generally taxed at the preferential long-term capital gains rates of 0%, 15%, or 20%, depending on the taxpayer’s taxable income and filing status (IRC Section 1(h)).
  • Collectibles Gain: Gains from the sale of collectibles, such as art, antiques, stamps, and coins, held for more than one year are considered long-term capital gains but are subject to a maximum tax rate of 28% (IRC Section 1(h)(1)). This higher rate reflects the nature of these assets as often being for personal enjoyment as well as investment.
  • Unrecaptured Section 1250 Gain: This specifically relates to the sale of depreciable real property (often referred to as Section 1250 property) used in a trade or business. When such property is sold at a gain, a portion of the gain may represent the depreciation deductions that were previously taken. This “unrecaptured Section 1250 gain” is taxed at a maximum rate of 25% (IRC Section 1(h)(1)(D)).It’s important to note that the gain exceeding the accumulated depreciation is generally taxed at the regular long-term capital gains rates.
  • Small Business Stock Gain (§ 1202): Under IRC Section 1202, certain taxpayers may be able to exclude a portion of the gain from the sale of qualified small business stock held for more than five years. The excludable amount can be up to the greater of $10 million or 10 times the taxpayer’s basis in the stock. The portion of the gain that is not excluded is taxed at the regular long-term capital gains rates, but with a maximum rate of 28% on the non-excluded portion.
  • Qualified Dividends: While not directly a gain from the sale of an asset, qualified dividends received from certain stocks are taxed at the same long-term capital gains rates (IRC Section 1(h)(11)). This treatment aligns the taxation of certain corporate profits distributed to shareholders with the taxation of gains from selling those shares held long-term.
Net long-term capital gains, while often taxed at lower rates, are effectively layered on top of ordinary income to determine the applicable capital gains tax rate. Ordinary income fills up the lower tax brackets first. Ordinary income tax liability is calculated, any net long-term capital gain is then considered. The tax rate applied to this capital gain depends on taxpayer’s total taxable income, including both ordinary income and the capital gain itself. 

Additional Reading

IRS Publication 544 – sale and other dispositions of assets

IRS Publication 550 – Investment income and expenses

 

 

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Fundamentals of Federal Taxation Copyright © 2025 by Zhuoli Axelton is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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