4 Rhetorical Appeals
Like any form of communication, writing aims to establish and maintain (as well as occasionally sever) connections with an audience. In addition to defining “audience,” this chapter also describes some ways to better assess and accommodate our readers. In addition, we’ll consider some strategies for better understanding our audiences’ needs and how our writing can best address those needs.
You might be surprised to know that the foundation of modern communication strategies has deep roots in ancient Greece. Although Plato (~427—347 B.C.E.) advocated for clear and thoughtful speech, the philosopher was not especially fond of writing. In Phaedrus (~370 B.C.E.), he describes the written word as an “invention [that] will produce forgetfulness in the minds of those who learn to use it, because they will not practice their memory” (Bizzell & Herzberg 165). Although Plato was skeptical of writing, he offered many important teachings about the power of communication (even if he favored the spoken word over the written one). For Plato, knowledge was developed through engaged dialog rather than reading through an unresponsive text.
Aristotle (384—322 B.C.E.), on the other hand, was a champion of writing despite being one of Plato’s students. In his notes and lectures collected in Rhetoric, Aristotle unpacks rhetoric as “the available means of persuasion” (Bizzell & Herzberg 181). Published nearly 2500 years ago, the Rhetoric presented many of the strategies used for communicating to this day. The majority of these strategies cannot be covered here. One important concept to discuss, however, is what we often refer to as the “rhetorical triangle.” This triangle is comprised of three primary methods of persuasion, ethos, pathos, and logos.
- Ethos describes using one’s credibility to develop a trusting connection with an audience. A diploma or certification, for example, is one way to demonstrate training and knowledge, therefore creating credibility. These “ethical” appeals can be subtle and less obvious but are extremely powerful.
- Pathos is the use of emotions to compel an audience to behave a certain way. These “passionate” appeals are often more overt than ethos but are exceptionally persuasive. Think about some of the advertisements you’ve seen – what emotions are used to convince you to buy products or check out a website?
- Logos is a complex rhetorical strategy that is essentially the use of “logic” and reasoning to persuade an audience. This appeal also relies upon evidence and proof to persuade an audience that your message is true. By extension, this sense of “truth” is implied in order, structure, and cohesive design.
As you may have guessed, these concepts are not exclusive nor distinct but overlap and blend. These appeals are also subjective, which means that they are interpreted differently by each individual. A politician, for example, may seem ethical and credible to many. For others, however, that same politician may be entirely unbelievable. Time, culture, background, social and economic status and many other factors also impact the rhetorical power of a text.
