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Culture

As you might imagine, peer relationships are shaped by a wide range of contextual factors, and their development is not universal across all environments. One of the most significant influences is culture, which plays a key role in shaping how children and adolescents form and maintain relationships with their peers.

For example, in cultures that emphasize individualism—such as the United States—peer relationships tend to be more intimate and emotionally expressive. U.S. students often form close, dyadic friendships that are highly influential in shaping their social and emotional development. These friendships typically involve high levels of self-disclosure, loyalty, and mutual support.

In contrast, in cultures that emphasize collectivism—such as Indonesia—peer relationships are often broader and more group-oriented. Indonesian students may interact with a wider network of peers, placing greater value on group harmony, cooperation, and shared responsibility rather than deep individual closeness. While these relationships may seem less emotionally intense from a Western perspective, they reflect a strong sense of belonging within the peer group.

These differences highlight how cultural values shape not only the structure of peer relationships but also the expectations, behaviors, and emotional expressions within them. Recognizing these cultural variations helps us understand that peer development is deeply embedded within social and cultural contexts.

Family

In addition to culture, family also plays an important role in shaping children’s peer relationships. Parents and caregivers can exert both direct and indirect influences. Directly, families influence who children associate with—for example, by arranging playdates or enrolling them in specific schools or activities. Indirectly, the neighborhood a family chooses can shape the peer group available to the child, especially in early and middle childhood, when friendships are often formed based on physical proximity.

Families also influence peer relationships through their impact on children’s social skills and behavior. Children observe how their parents interact with others and often model these behaviors. Furthermore, parenting styles that support socioemotional development—such as warm, responsive caregiving—are associated with children who possess better social skills, emotional regulation, and empathy (Moroni et al., 2019). These skills, in turn, enhance children’s ability to build and maintain positive peer relationships.

Social Media

Finally, with the rise of technology and social media, peer relationships have undergone significant transformation. Social media increases the frequency and immediacy of peer interactions, making it easier for children and adolescents to stay connected. This can have positive effects, such as providing immediate social support, but may also lead to negative outcomes, like increased co-rumination or social comparison. Moreover, social media enables the formation of entirely online friendships, expanding the peer network beyond school and neighborhood boundaries. As a result, peer relationships are no longer limited by geographical proximity and are increasingly shaped by the digital environment, which can both enhance and complicate children’s social experiences.

Video 10.4.1. The influence of social media on adolescents’ peer relationships

Impact of peer relationship

Throughout this book, we have emphasized the importance of peers in children’s development. Just like the family, peer relationships play a critical role across multiple domains of development. In fact, as children grow older—particularly after entering the formal school system—peer relationships become increasingly influential. Peers impact development in many areas, especially on their cognitive and socioemotional development.

As discussed in the section on academic achievement, peer influence plays a significant role in children’s learning. Participation in structured learning environments—such as collaborative study groups or classroom-based peer interactions—is positively associated with academic success. These settings not only reinforce academic skills but also foster motivation and engagement. As children mature, they become more likely to seek academic support from peers rather than family members, highlighting the growing importance of peer networks in educational contexts.

In addition to cognitive development, positive peer relationships are crucial for socioemotional development. Through peer interactions, children learn to navigate social dynamics, resolve conflicts, practice cooperation, and regulate their emotions. These experiences help them build essential social skills that contribute to emotional resilience and interpersonal competence. Children with supportive peer relationships tend to be more emotionally stable, exhibit higher self-esteem, and report greater life satisfaction.

Conversely, children who experience peer rejection or social exclusion are at greater risk for emotional difficulties. Repeated rejection or bullying can lead to heightened stress, which may contribute to serious consequences such as anxiety, depression, and poor academic outcomes. Therefore, fostering healthy peer relationships is essential for promoting well-rounded development and long-term well-being.