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As we previously discussed, gender is distinct from sex. Gender refers to the social, psychological, cultural, and behavioral traits associated with being male, female, or another gender identity. Sex, in contrast, refers to biological characteristics, such as chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive anatomy. As children’s gender identity continues to develop, their understanding of the traits, roles, and expectations associated with different genders also evolves over time.
In general, younger children tend to hold rigid gender stereotypes, but this rigidity often decreases as they enter middle childhood. For example, one study found that while only 33.8% of 5-year-olds believed that objects like vacuum cleaners were for both men and women, that number increased to 87.8% among 11-year-olds (Banse et al., 2010). However, this flexibility may decline again during adolescence, a time when youth begin exploring identity more deeply and often conform more closely to traditional gender roles. A study by Alferi and colleagues (1996) found that gender flexibility peaked in grades 7–8 and declined afterward, suggesting a return to more rigid views during later adolescence.
Measuring gender stereotypes
Gender stereotypes are commonly measured by assessing whether youth categorize certain attributes as male- or female-typical (i.e., gender stereotypes) and whether they view it as acceptable for both genders to express those traits (i.e., gender flexibility). In recent years, researchers have also turned to implicit measures such as the Implicit Association Test (IAT) to capture unconscious gender biases. In these tasks, participants categorize words or images related to gender (e.g., “man,” “woman”) and domains (e.g., “math,” “language”). In congruent trials, gender-stereotypical pairings are grouped together (e.g., male/math), while in incongruent trials, non-stereotypical pairings are grouped (e.g., female/math). If participants have implicit stereotypes (e.g., associating men more strongly with math), they tend to respond more slowly in the incongruent trials. Research has consistently shown that such implicit biases are common in both adolescents and adults.
Video 11.3.1. Explaining what is an implicit bias test
What influences gender stereotype?
Multiple factors contribute to the development of gender stereotypes, including family, media, and peers. Families, particularly fathers, often reinforce traditional gender roles, sometimes unconsciously. For example, boys are typically encouraged to be more independent and are often granted more autonomy than girls at an early age. These expectations extend to academic domains as well. One study found that when parents believed girls should be better at language arts and boys at math, their daughters internalized these beliefs—resulting in lower math performance and reduced enrollment in advanced STEM courses (Aidy et al., 2021).
Social media and peer influence also play a powerful role in shaping gender perceptions during adolescence. Social media often promotes narrow ideals, such as unrealistic body standards for girls, which can increase body dissatisfaction and reinforce gendered expectations. Similarly, peer influence can strengthen traditional gender role beliefs. A study of Belgian adolescents found that those with more same-sex friendships and higher levels of peer pressure were more likely to adopt traditional gender attitudes during early adolescence (Halimi et al., 2020).
Middle childhood and adolescence are critical periods for identity exploration, including gender identity and beliefs. During this time, children and adolescents form more complex understandings of themselves and others. Therefore, it is crucial for families and schools to foster supportive environments that encourage gender flexibilityand challenge harmful stereotypes. Doing so can promote healthier development and reduce stress related to rigid or limiting gender expectations.
